While liquidity ratios tell you if a company can survive today, market prospect ratios tell you what the investing world thinks about the company's future . These ratios are the most commonly used by individual investors because they help determine if a stock is a "bargain" (undervalued) or "expensive" (overvalued) . They link the company's financial performance (like earnings) to its stock market price .

Price-to-Earnings (P/E) Ratio: The Price Tag of Profits

The P/E ratio is the most famous financial metric on Wall Street. It tells you how much investors are willing to pay for every $1 of a company's earnings .

The Formula:
P/E Ratio = Market Value per Share / Earnings per Share (EPS)

Two Types of P/E:

Trailing P/E: Uses the actual earnings from the past 12 months. It is objective but looks backward .
Forward P/E: Uses estimated future earnings for the next year. It is more useful for growth investors but relies on analysts' "best guesses," which can be wrong .

What the Numbers Mean:

High P/E: Investors expect high growth in the future and are willing to pay a premium now .
Low P/E: The stock might be undervalued, or investors might be pessimistic about the company's future .
N/A: If a company is losing money (negative earnings), it doesn't have a P/E ratio .

Price/Earnings-to-Growth (PEG) Ratio: The GPS for Growth

A high P/E ratio can be scary. Is a company with a P/E of 40 too expensive? Not necessarily, if it's growing very fast. The PEG ratio solves this by factoring in the company's growth rate .

The Formula:
PEG Ratio = P/E Ratio / Annual EPS Growth Rate

The Rule of Thumb:

PEG < 1.0: The stock is potentially undervalued because you are paying less than the growth rate .
PEG > 1.0: The stock is potentially overvalued, as the price is higher than the expected growth .

Example:

Coca-Cola: P/E of 22, Growth of 4% = PEG of 5.5 .
NVIDIA: P/E of 35, Growth of 25% = PEG of 1.4 .
Even though NVIDIA has a higher P/E, it might be a "better value" because its growth justifies the price .

Return on Equity (ROE): The Management Efficiency Gauge

ROE measures how effectively a company's management is using the money shareholders have invested to generate a profit . It is a favorite of legendary investors like Warren Buffett.

The Formula:
ROE = Net Income / Shareholders' Equity

What is a "Good" ROE?

10% or less: Generally considered poor .
15% - 20%: Generally considered good, depending on the industry .
The Shortcut: Compare the company's ROE to the long-term average of the S&P 500 .

Debt-to-Equity (D/E) Ratio: The Borrowing Balance

Before you invest, you must know if the company is "leveraged" (drowning in debt). The D/E ratio compares total liabilities to shareholders' equity .

The Formula:
D/E Ratio = Total Liabilities / Total Shareholders' Equity

D/E of 1.0: The company has $1 of debt for every $1 of equity .
D/E of 2.0 or higher: Generally considered risky, as the company relies heavily on borrowed money .
Industry Matters: A D/E of 3.77 (like Apple in 2024) might be acceptable for a massive, cash-rich company, but it would be a death sentence for a small startup .

Dividend Yield: The "Cash Back" Metric

For investors who want regular income, the dividend yield is key. It shows how much a company pays out in dividends relative to its stock price .

The Formula:
Dividend Yield = Annual Dividend per Share / Stock Price

If a stock costs $100 and pays a $5 dividend, the yield is 5%. This is like an "interest rate" on your investment .

Frequently Asked Questions (Market Ratios)

Q: Is a low P/E always a bargain?
A: No. It could be a "value trap." The price might be low because the company's business model is dying (like a DVD rental store in the age of streaming) .

Q: Why do tech companies have such high P/E ratios?
A: Because investors are paying for future profits. They expect the company to grow massively over the next 10 years .

Q: Can ROE be too high?
A: Yes. If a company has very little equity (perhaps because they took on massive debt to buy back shares), the ROE can look artificially high. Always check the debt levels alongside ROE .

Summary Table: Valuation Toolkit

Metric	Formula	Goal
P/E Ratio	Price / EPS	Compare to industry peers .
PEG Ratio	P/E / Growth	Look for values near or below 1.0 .
ROE	Net Income / Equity	Look for 15% or higher .
D/E Ratio	Liabilities / Equity	Lower is generally safer .
P/B Ratio	Price / Book Value	Useful for asset-heavy industries .

By combining these ratios, you create a "three-dimensional" view of a company. You see its current price (P/E), its future potential (PEG), its management's skill (ROE), and its financial risk (D/E). This toolkit allows you to move from "guessing" to "analyzing," giving you the confidence to spot the true leaders in the market.